A brief history of music in Czechia

Preface

Czech music - throughout more than 1000 years old history - can be considered to have been beneficial in both the European and worldwide context, several times co-determined or even determined a newly arriving era in musical art[1] [2], especially of Classicism, as well as by original attitudes in Baroque, Romantic, and modern classical music. Since early times of artificial music, Czech musicians and composers have been often influenced by genuine folk music, and the emphasis of its application into their works has brought those pricinples of specific national elements into European musical tradition too[3], above all in the so-called "Golden Era" of Czech music in the period between the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century.

Ousets

In 863, when Greek missionaries Constantine and Methodius brought Christianity to the Great Moravian Empire, the second state in the territory (after Samo's Empire), they also introduced  the liturgy sung in Old Church Slavonic to this country. After the fall of this state, and taking a leadership role in the country by Přemyslid dynasty and The Duchy of Bohemia at the break of 9th and 10th century, Latin liturgy and chants became determinants for next development of artificial music, however, the Old Church Slavonic songs survived in popular performance and also in some religious centres, e.g.in Sázava monastery[4], initiated by St.Procopius (Sv.Prokop). The monastery was an important center of Old Church Slavonic liturgy and literature up until 1097[4].

Early music

The musical tradition of Czechia arose from the church hymns, whose first evidence is suggested at the break of the 10th and 11th centuries[6]. The first significant pieces of Czech music include two chorales, which in their time performed the function of anthems: Hospodine pomiluj ny (Lord, Have Mercy on Us) from around 1050, but the authorship of this anthem is ascribed by some historians to Saint Vojtěch, known worldwide as St.Adalbert of Prague, Czech nobleman from Slavník family, first bishop of Prague, missionary, and martyr living between 956 and 997[7]), unmistakeably the oldest and most faithfully preserved popular spiritual song to have survived to the present, and the church hymn Svatý Václave (Saint Wenceslas Chorale), the song dedicated to the main patron saint of Czechia St.Wenceslas (Václav) from around 1250[8], however its roots can be found already in the 12th century. This hymn still belongs to the most popular religious songs to this day, usually sung at the end of the Holy Mass on major Christian and national holidays. In 1918, in the beginning of the Czechoslovak state, the song was discussed as one of the possible choices for the national anthem. 

The record of the song "Hospodine pomiluj ny (Lord, Have Mercy on Us), created probably between the end of the 10th century and 1050, in the chronicle of Jan from Holešov from 1397; the record of the church hymn "Svatý Václave" (St.Wenceslas Chorale) created in the 12th century; St.Adalbert of Prague (Vojtěch) on stained glass window of the St.Vitus cathedral in Prague.

In the 13th century, the Kingdom of Bohemia was playing a major role in European politics. In the writings of the first chroniclers, above all Kosma, there are frequent mentions of secular folk songs and professional musicians in the country. At this time, King Wenceslas II organised the first major musical event that was to draw the attention of all of Europe. He held a musical competition in Prague, inviting the most famous European musicians and the king also took part personally, as a minstrel[9].

In 1309, with the first Czech king from Luxembourg dynasty, John of Bohemia, came to Prague French composer Guillaume de Machaut as the the King’s Secretary. This journey helped spread to Bohemia the influence of contemporary musical innovations of Ars antiqua and Ars nova. When Charles IV was crowned the King of Bohemia and also the King of the Romans and later the Holy Roman Emperor, Prague became one of Europe’s political and cultural centres. Charles was one of the most educated medieval rulers, and naturally, music resounded at the emperor’s court, as a distinguished accompaniment to unique art and architecture. In 1348, Charles IV founded a university in Prague, where a department of musicology operated from the very start[10]. By his reign, first documented personalities appear in Czech music, e.g. theologian and composer Záviš of Zápy, hymnographer and founder of his own school of poetry Domaslav (also called Domoslav) and Jan of Jenštejn, the Archbishop of Prague, also poet, writer and composer. 

Important insight into the beginnings of Czech music brings Jistebnice hymn book from 1430, which contains representative collection of liturgical, martial and spiritual songs, created until that time, including Christmas carols. The Czech carol "Di est leticie" was known in the Middle Ages all over Europe, another one, Narodil se Kristus Pán (Virgo partit filium) from 14th century is regularly sung even today, being the most popular Czech Christmas song of all times (in English version "Be joyful, Earth and starry sky"). 

They are also several records of Czech non-religious, above all love songs from the 14th century of courtly type Dřěvo se listem odievá (Trees Are Putting on Leaves) or Jižť mne všě radost ostává (All My Joy is Waning)[11]. As an example of the record of medieval notation can serve Gradual of Arnošt of Pardubice from 1363.

A famous period of spiritual songs was the time of Hussite movement in the beginning and first half of 15th century. Jan Hus, the spiritual leader of reformation, is named as the composer of a number of songs in the Jistebnice hymn book, such as Jezu Kriste, ščedrý kněže (Jesus Christ, the open-hearted Priest), Navštiv nás, Kriste žádúcí (Visit Us, Christ, We Pray). This hymnal contains liturgical songs and a collection of martial and spiritual songs, including Christmas carols. The only confirmed author from that time is the priest Jan Čapek from Tábor, composing songs and hymns. To him is attributed the authorship of famous Hussite battle hymn Ktož sú Boží bojovníci (Ye Who Are Warriors Of God).

The oldest record of the most popular Czech Christmas song "Narodil se Kristus Pán" (Virgo partit filium), and Jistebnice hymn book, a Czech hand-written hymnbook from around 1430.

Renaissance

Because of political and social instability in the country caused by Hussite wars, music of the Renaissance came to Czechia later, however already many years before, Charles IV himself maintained correspondence with some figures of the early Italian Renaissance, among others also with the poet Petrarch. During renaissance period, the role of instrumental elements in music became more significant, above all organ, number of used voices increased and music was gradually becoming polyphonic. In many locations, records mention the construction of new instruments, of which the most famous was built at St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague, finished in 1567. Also the lute was developed for both solo performance and accompanying singers[12]. Music has become natural part of life in broader strata of society.

In the 16th century, more than in the 15th, a larger role was taken by popular secular Czech folk songs, such as Čížku, ptáčku zeleného peří (Siskin, bird of the green feathers), Proč kalina v struze stojí (Why does the rose grow in the ditch) or Stojí lipka v širém poli (The linden stands in the open field). They were used mostly as strains in spiritual songs, and sometimes in form they also became "cantus firmus" contrapuntal compositions[13].

To the most important musicians of Czech renaissance belongs the writer, hymnographer, composer, and music theorist  Jan Blahoslav, emphasizing the need for the musical rhythm to correspond with the chronometric system of prosody of the verses. He was also the chief editor of Šamotulský kancionál (Šamotuly hymnbook), which comprised 735 spiritual hymns. Other important figures of the Czech Renaissance music were Jan Trojan Turnovský, Šimon Bar Madelka, Ondřej Chrysoponus Jevíčský, and Pavel Spongopaeus Jistebnický.

Significant personality of late Renaissance times style was Kryštof Harant of Polžice and Bezdružice, Czech nobleman, diplomat, composer, musician, writer and soldier. Among his works that survive are a six-part motet Qui confidunt in Domino, popular five-part mass Cantus Firmus Dolorosi Martyr and documented composition with a Czech text Dejž tobě Pán Bůh štěstí (May the Lord Give You Good Fortune).

Music theorist, composer and hymnographer Jan Blahoslav; the record of the composition by Šimon Bar (Jona) Madelka; Kryštof Harant from Polžice and Bezdružice.

Baroque era

The rich arsenal of Czech Baroque music is represented by personalities who became specific ornaments of European culture, with many composers, among whom stand out Adam Václav Michna of Otradovice in the early Baroque, and Jan Dismas Zelenka in its crowning epoch.

From the beginning of Baroque era, musical schools have been flourishing, managed predominantly by religious orders, mostly by Jesuits, founding extensive university complex of Klementinum college in Prague, organized many musical events[14] and educated a lot of musicians, despite the horrors of the Thirty Years' War, when the Czech lands lost half of their population. Also the nobility supported musical education and founded their own local ensembles, which have become popular from the latter of 17th century. Especially remarkable were musical ensembles  in Kroměříž and Olomouc. Secular music also grew in popularity in the monasteries, as numerous documents surviving from the Cistercian monastery in North-Bohemian Osek can attest. At the turn of Renaissance and Baroque, opera appears as a new musical form and comes to Bohemia, but becomes popular at the start of the 18th century[15].

A composer, organist, poet and choirmaster Adam Michna z Otradovic, living in South Bohemian town Jindřichův Hradec, is considered the most identifiable, leading personality of early Czech baroque. He initiated the development of Czech art in that era and became a significant inspiration for Czech artists of future generations. His works content pieces, which cannot deny Renaissance echoes. His music acts with remarkable vivacity, comprising both humour and tragic of daily life. However not all of his works were preserved and known today, there are over 230 of his compositions in three Czech and two Latin collections. He composed vocal as well as vocal-instrumental music to his own lyrics. His poetry remains very vivid with intense influence of senses.[16]. The majority of his creative effort was dedicated to sacred music, above all masses and litanies. The best known are his three hymn cycles, Česká mariánská muzika (Czech Marian music), Svatoroční muzika (Holy year music) and Loutna česká (Czech Lute), a collection of spiritual compositions for two sopranos accompanied by two or three violas and bass. Some of Michna's songs are still commonly sung today, mainly his Christmas song Chtic, aby spal (Wanting Him to Sleep) and liturgical Vesel se, nebes královno (Rejoice, the Queen of Heaven).

The crowning Baroque era is represented by Jan Dismas Zelennka, composer from small town Louňovice pod Blaníkem, living the majority of his life in Dresden, where he also died almost forgotten, however, his compositional abilities were praised even during his lifetime by contemporaries such as Johann Sebastian Bach (being sometimes considered "a catholic counterpoint of Bach") or Telemann. After his death, the scores remained closed in the private property of the Saxon king in Dresden for very long time, that's why he became no.1 of Czech Baroque composers with a huge delay. The beginning of rediscovery of his work is accredited to Bedřich Smetana, who rewrote some scores from the archives, but only after 250 years after Zelenka's death has begun new era of his complete renaissance. More than three quarters of his main works  have been premiered, performed and recorded for the first time, mostly by ensembles from Czechia, but also from Germany, Switzerland and Netherlands. Zelenka's music is notably daring with outstanding harmonic invention and mastery of counterpoint[17]. In his melodic inventiveness, especially in rhythm, are recognizable features of Czech traditional (genuine folk) music, which make him stand out from his Italian and German contemporaries. His creative attitude and style is considered innovative and outrunning his times[18], what seems to be also another reason for misunderstaning and lack of appreciation of Zelenka's music at his time. Zelenka's works includes over 200 opuses, mostly sacred music, including 20 masses,  requiems, oratorios, Magnificats and a Te Deum, litanies, many psalms, hymns and antiphons. The most important of these are 6 masses Missae ultimae, composed in the last years of his life, the oratorios and litanies. The compositions that represent the peak of his secular work and at the same time the era of the high Baroque include monumental oratorio Sub olea pacis et palma virtutis and his instrumental compositions.

Bohuslav Matěj Černohorský achieved - unlike so many of his Czech contemporaries - fame in his lifetime. In his finest works he was able to combine the Czech love for instrumental virtuosity and folk-influenced melodic ideas with accomplished contrapuntal skills. Among those that did are the excellent fugue Laudetur Jesus Christus[19], a grandiose vocal fugue with organ accompaniment, which is cited by the Baroque Music Library as an excellent example of its kind, Regina coeli, a concert cantata, and several pieces for organ and toccatas. An entire school of composers are connected with his name.

Adam Michna, Chevalier from Otradovice; memorial of Jan Dismas Zelenka by Marie Uchytilová at the site of the composer's birthplace in Louňovice pod Blaníkem, Central Bohemia, Czechia; Bohuslav Matěj Černohorský.

Besides already mentioned leading personalities, other important Czech composers of Baroque music were Václav Karel Holan Rovenský, the author a huge collection of hymns, sacred and festive songs called Cappella Regia Musicalis (772 pieces), published in Czech language in 1693, trumpet virtuoso Pavel Josef Vejvanovský, characterised by charming folk idioms and virtuosic brass writing, Heinrich Ignaz Franz von Biber, violin virtuoso and a creator of experimental works with utilization of special tunings for the instrument, and elements of collage and polytonality or Jan Ignác František Vojta, active predominantly in the 17th century; František Ignác Antonín Tůma, whose compositions were noted for their solidity of texture as well as for their chromaticism, Jan Josef Ignác Brentner, fused a direct melodic component, reminiscent of contemporary Moravian practices, with highly ornamented instrumental accompaniment typical for Bohemian musicians, Josef Seger, the author of excellent organ pieces and fugues incl. fugue based on the most popular Czech Christmas carol "Narodil se Kristus Pán" (Christ the Lord is Born)[20], or vocal specialist Josef Antonín Plánický, active in 18th century[21]. To composers, foreshadowing by compositional techniques the income of classicist style belong František Václav Míča and the author of many masses and sinfonias Jan Zach.

Classicism

The new style, influenced originally by ideals of Classical antiquity, with straight, fixed and clear rules and the emphasizing of melody, was accessible to more people and came to be known as European Classicism. From the middle of 18th century, in the period of official and practical cancellation of Lands of Bohemian crown within Austrian empire, the era of decline of the nation and germanization of Czechia, people found consolation in music. Czech basic schools curriculum contained music as a substantial part of education and Czech lands were becamoming some “Europe’s conservatory” as the English musical theorist and historian Charles Burney of that time described Czechia in his musical book of travels [22]. Because many teachers or heads of church choirs in the countryside did write in simplier way for wider society, a new type of music, whoose roots can be found deep in the Baroque era caught up quickly and started to develop.

The high standards of music education helped substantially to emerging of many personalities in Czech music of classicist era and their important contribution to the origin and progress of classicist music. Because of provincial character of the Czech lands in the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, many Czech musicians had to leave their country in the interest of his musical career and joined European centres of cultural life in Italy, France, Germany and Austria, also joining the royal courts, becoming prominent composers, instrumentalists, teachers and also founders of important musical schools. This kind of fate is typical for the vast majority of Czech musicians of those times, accompanied usually by changing their original names into the language of the area of their acting. Massive exodus of Czech musicians abroad had consequencies in cultural life of the country, lasting until Czech National Revival, when some specific national musical movement started to develop. The absence of domestic sources of inspiration in that historical period are felt even today in the lack of popularity and lesser knowledge of importance of Czech composers of classicist era working out of their homeland, however they influenced later well-known composers, eg. Haydn, Mozart, etc.

Among all Czech contributive musical personalities excelled Jan Václav Antonín Stamic, the father of famous Mannheim school, substantially innovating structure of symphonic works and sonata form, where his main innovation is the four-movement structure of symphony, sonata form used in symphonic first movements, and occasionally in finales and even slow movements as well, Jiří Antonín Benda in bringing the musical form of melodrama to life, Jan Křtitel Vaňhal, the author of over 70 symphonies and almost 100 sacred works being considered highly influential to Mozart, making use of many features, which appeared later in large scale of Austrian composer's works, and being considered highly influential to symphonies, prefiguring works of Beethoven[23], Josef Mysliveček, a pioneer in the composition of music for wind ensemble, inovator of operatic works [called "Il (divino) Boemo" - A (Divine) Czech] and oldier friend and inspirator of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, contributed substantially to the formation of late period of classicism with significant compositional models in the genres of symphony, Italian opera, and violin concerto[24], and Antonín Rejcha by his innovative methods of composition, which he applied in a variety of works such as fugues and string quartets, leaving their mark on the works of Beethoven and Schubert[25] and techniques such as bitonality and polyrhythm, derived often from folk music, directly anticipates that of composers of modern era far in advance[26].

Composers Jan Václav Antonín Stamic (also known as Johann Stamitz), Josef Mysliveček, Jan Křtitel Vaňhal (also known as Johann Baptist Wanhal) a Antonín Rejcha (also known as Antoine Reicha)

Among many significant personalities of the Czech classicism belong composers František Xaver Brixi, František Xaver Dušek, Jiří Ignác Linek, Antonín Vranický, and his brother Pavel Vranický.

Romantic era

An important representative of Czech music abroad in the second half of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century was  Jan Ladislav Dusík (Dussek), a composer and piano virtuoso, is considered a predecessor of the Romantic composers for piano, especially Chopin, Schumann and Mendelssohn. 

Some of his more forward-looking piano works have traits often associated with Romanticism.[27]. He was instrumental in extending the size of the pianoforte. He composed large scale of piano sonatas and concertos, and also the highly unusual chamber sonata with percussion, an extremely rare example of pre-20th-century chamber music that includes percussion.

 Jan Ladislav Dusík (Dussek), Václav Jan Tomášek, and Jan Václav Hugo Voříšek. 

Romantic era in works of Czech composers started also with composer and pianist Václav Jan Tomášek who is considered the founder of Czech Romanticism, and works of Jan Václav Hugo Voříšek by his melodically inventive early Romantic idioms in his music, e.g. "impromptu", which term was used for the first time in relation to his piano pieces and subsequently used by Schubert, Chopin and numerous other composers. His typically Czech pastoral singing was later followed by Bedřich Smetana and Antonín Dvořák.

In the next stages of Romanticism begun the period, which brought Czech music an international fame. As with many nations, what is known as national music developed in this era, a phenomenon related to the national revival in Czechia of the nineteenth century. Its spiritual father and practical initiator in music is composer Bedřich Smetana. He is considered to be the founder of Czech national music, and national music school; he elevated Czech music to an international level from the very start, being the pioneer of a musical style which became closely identified with his country's aspirations to independent statehood. Smetana and his friend Liszt, who pointed out his genius, created a new form in music – the symphonic poem.

Bedřich Smetana; facsimile of the second movement (Vltava - St.John's Streams) of Smetana's symphonic poem My Country; composer's birthplace in Litomyšl (East Bohemia), Czechia. 

To his major works belong symphonic poem Má vlast (My Country), reflecting the landscapes, legends, and history of Czechia, encapsulating Smetana’s profound love and devotion to his homeland[28], and operas with dominating themes from Czech legends, history and traditions, above all Libuše and Prodaná nevěsta (The Bartered Bride), chamber music, and an extensive collection of solo piano works, including many folk dances, especially polkas. Smetana had been a virtuoso performer on the piano, and those compositions, augmented by the more mature piano pieces of his difficult last years, constitute an important body of piano literature.

The most famous Czech composer and one of the leading world composers of all time was Antonín Dvořák. Dvořák’s own compositional style, usually denoted as "Classical-Romantic synthesis", is considered the fullest recreation of a national idiom with that of the symphonic tradition and in spiritual music, absorbing folk influences and finding effective ways of using them. 

His world fame started in Great Britain, where he conducted his spiritual music and Symphony No.7, and received an honorary doctorate at Cambridge university. Dvořák was also substantially influential for the growth of American classical music, being the director of Conservatory in New York between 1892-5, where he composed the most famous work Symphony No.9 "From The New World", in which he also showed the way how to work with genuine American music in classical rank[29]. This symphony belongs among the most favourite compositions of this kind in the world. Neil Armstrong took a recording of the New World Symphony to the Moon during the Apollo 11 mission, the first Moon landing, in 1969, and left it there as some representative document of the culture of human civilization. To Dvořák’s most important works belong also Symphonies No.7 & 8, funeral mass Requiem, considered to be one of the best compositions of that kind ever, oratorial work Stabat Mater, Concerto for violoncello, two collections of Slavonic Dances, a spiritual hymn Te Deum, masses, string quartets and Rusalka, the most famous operatic work. In general, Dvořák left an extensive work of oratorical, song, chamber, operatic, and symphonic music[30], and also educated composers Josef Suk and Vítězslav Novák.

Antonín Leopold Dvořák; manuscript of Requiem op.89, with the composer's signature and the beginning of the 3rd part "Dies Irae"; villa "America" - the museum of Antonín Dvořák in Prague

Other famous late romantic composers were Zdeněk Fibich, the author of symphonic poems and scenic melodramas, and in Czechia born symphonist and one of leading conductors of his generation Gustav Mahler. Also some of leading composers of Czech Modernism, Josef Suk, Vítězslav Novák, and Leoš Janáček, had their roots or beginnings in Romantic era.

The period between second half of 19th century and first half of 20th century, can be considered the golden age of Czech music, represented mainly by so-called "The Great Four" of personalities of Bedřich Smetana, Antonín Dvořák and also modernists Leoš Janáček and Bohuslav Martinů, but with inconsiderable role of several other, lesser known, but for the development of modern and contemporary music important composers.

Modern era

Modernism started at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries by works of a music theorist, folklorist, publicist and teacher Leoš Janáček, composer of an original, inimitable modern musical style, inspired by Czech (above all of Moravian and Silesian region) and other Slavic folk music and musical characteristics of folk speech, which is a major sign of his rendition of opera singing. He presented a previously unheard world of music, sometimes even almost from otherworldly spheres[31], which major example is his Glagolitic Mass. Janáček's music employs a vastly expanded view of tonality, using unorthodox chord spacings, structures, and modality. To his other distinctive works belong  Sinfonietta, rich arsenal of operatic works, in which excel the operas Jenůfa, Káťa Kabanová, and The Cunning Little Vixen[32], rhapsody Taras Bulba, string quartets, many orchestral and other chamber works.

Josef Suk, the pupil and son-in-law of Antonín Dvořák was influenced first by Late romanticism, but in later pieces he uses more extended harmonies to create a personal and complex style, based on chromatic polyphony with a direction towards the freedom of atonal music. This concentration on dissonance created music which always showed a tension due to the absence of any musical relaxation. To his best works belong Asrael Symphony, written in response to the deaths of his wife and Dvořák[33], Fairy Tale Suite, the cycle of piano works Things Lived and Dreamed, and the trilogy of symphonic poems A Summer's Tale, The Ripening, and Epilog. Suk won a silver medal at the Art competitions at the Olympic Games 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, with his work Into a New Life.

Bohuslav Martinů, a prolific modern symphonist and opera composer, moving in many distinctive directions with neoclassicism, expressionism and jazz music in veins. Martinů created over 400 musical work during his life, from which 6 symphonies, Double Concerto for Two String Orchestras, Piano, & Timpani, instrumental-vocal Field Mass, Gilgamesh oratorial work, Concerto for violoncello and orchestra, the extensive collection of piano concertos and mny chamber music have to be mentioned. From operatic works stand out Juliette, Hry o Marii (Plays About Mary) & Řecké pašije (The Greek Passion). He continued to look to his Bohemian and Moravian roots for musical ideas. His best-known work from these works is the ballet Špalíček, which incorporates Czech folk tunes and nursery rhymes, as well as chamber cantata Otvírání studánek (The Opening of the Wells)[34].

Leoš Janáček (photos on the cover of collection of his works, called "The Many Passions of Leoš Janáček"; Bohuslav Martinů at the piano working on his second symphony, New York, around 1942; Josef Suk

In the first half of 20th century started his career one of the creators of microtonal systems and one of major world composers of microtonal music Alois Hába[35], a composer and musical theoretician. His most significant innovative contribution to European music is his reworking of the tonality quarter, six, twelve, and five tone systems, which come from the Moravian folk tradition. 

Very interesting personality was Vítězslava Kaprálová, probably the most famous Czech female composer and conductor. Although she died very young at the age of 25, she left behind a remarkable catalogue of works, which includes her highly regarded art songs and music for piano solo, and a string quartet, music for cello, music for violin and piano, an orchestral cantata, two piano concertos, two orchestral suites, Military sinfonietta, and a concertino for clarinet, violin, and orchestra. She was already highly valued during her lifetime. 

To the most important personalities in high modern era belongs an original keys creator[36], symphonist Miloslav Kabeláč, whose music represents a distinctive and pure statement, the extraordinary effect of which is given by original and clear structural principles; in accordance with its generally ethical and humanistic focus. The most important compositions include Symphony No.8, the passacaglia Mystérium času (Mystery of Time), the composition for large orchestra Hamlet improvisations, and 8 inventions for percussions. Kabeláč was also a great promoter and composer of electroacoustic music in Czechia. The composer of modern sacred works for organ, and vocal-instrumental works on liturgical texts Petr Eben should be mentioned.

Alois Hába, Vítězslava Kaprálová, Miloslav Kabeláč, and Petr Eben

Traditional music

In the Czech traditional music should be noted genuine folk music and dances from Chodsko, border region in West Bohemia, where typical bagpipes are used in ensembles together with violins, double bass, and clarinet, South Bohemian folk music, and Moravian traditional music, which is known for the dulcimer, playing in ensembles that also include double bass, clarinet and violins. The traditional music of Moravia displays regional influences, especially in South Moravia, Valachia, and Lachia (the borderland of northern Moravia and Czech Silesia). Moravian traditional music excells as a popular source of inspiration for many Czech composers. Urban folk music, especially that of Prague, found its roots in the working class of industrial agglomerations in the 19th century. The accordion is a popular instrument here, but the trumpet is also often present in its performance in ensembles.

Bagpiper from Chodsko region; Moravian dulcimer ensemble; Jaroslav Vejvoda, the author of famous polka "Škoda lásky"; polka dancers at Czech National Polka Festival in Ennis, Texas, USA.

Among many others, the most famous dance from Czechia, widespread in the world is the Bohemian polka, originated in the beginning of 19th century in Central Bohemia in Kostelec nad Labem[37]. It is a dance to songs and instrumental pieces in two-quarter bar.

Important figure in the history of polka is a Czech composer and bandmaster Jaromír Vejvoda, the author of world famous polka Škoda lásky (originally Modřany polka). The song, which was gradually adapted several times (the current version dates from 1929) has become perhaps the most played world hit. It was included in the repertoire of, for example, the Glenn Miller and Benny Goodman orchestras, and sung by Frank Sinatra and Billie Holiday. This song is known all over the world under various names, in English as The Beer Barrel Polka (or Roll Out The Barrel). During World War II, Roll Out The Barrel became the most popular battle song, especially among the American army and its Western European allies. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in Europe and later the American president, reportedly stated after the war: "Jaromír Vejvoda is the author of the song that helped us win the war."

Musical events

Already in 13th century, Czech King Wenceslas II organised the first major musical event in the country, that was to draw the attention of all of Europe. He held a musical competition in Prague, inviting the most famous European musicians and the king also took part personally, as a minstrel. The most famous music festival in the country of today is Prague Spring International Music Festival of classical music, founded 1946, a permanent showcase for outstanding performing artists, symphony orchestras and chamber music ensembles of the world.

    Note: An overview of personalities, bands and ensembles of Czech jazz, rock, pop genres & postmodern music is a part of another treatise. 

Vladimír Hirsch, 2014

Literature & other sources

1. Haas, Elizabeth A.: Czech Music; Expats.cz, 2009
2. Czech Music History; EU Web
3. Nedbal, Martin; St.Pierre, Kelly; Vlhová, Hana: History of Music in the Czech Lands
4. Marko, Vasilj: The Entry of Slavs into Christendom, p.14
5. Wolverton, p. 134.
6. Thomas, Alfred (1998-01-01). Anne's Bohemia: Czech Literature and Society, 1311-1420. University of     
                  Minnesota Press. p. 25. ISBN 9780816630547.
7. Dějiny české hudby v obrazech (History of Czech music in pictures); in Czech
8. The chronicles of Beneš Krabice of Veitmil - the hymn "Svatý Václave" mentioned there as old and well-  
                  known in the end of the 13th century 
9. Czech Music History / EU 2009 [3]
10. Plavec J.: History of Czech Music I & II, Rectorate of Charles University, Prague
11. Anthology of Czech music 
12. Czech Lute Music 
13. History of music on Czech radio 
14. Czech Jesuit Province 
15. Dohnalová L.: Czech Music, DÚ 2004
16. Masaryk University Archive: Adam Michna z Otradovic 
17. Stockigt, Janice B.: Jan Dismas Zelenka – A Bohemian musician at the court of Dresden, Oxford: Oxford 
                  University Press, ISBN 0-19-816622-2l
18. Thompson, Damian (27 July 2013). "Why has nobody heard of the miraculous Czech composer Zelenka?". 
                  The Spectator. Retrieved 2013-07-27.
19. Baroque Composers and Musicians 
20. Kutná Hora's Musical Manuscripts of 15th and 16th Centuries 
21. Czech Music in the Baroque Era
22. The Friends of Czech heritage 
23. History of Czech Music | Radio Prague International, Archiv.radio.cz/en
24. Freeman D.E.: Josef Mysliveček, "Il Boemo": The Man and His Music (Detroit Monographs in Musicology)
25. Ron Drummond's articles on Reicha
26. Václav Jan Sýkora. Preface to an edition of 36 Fugues for Piano, Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1973, #19117–119
27. Dusík (1984), p. XXIII
28. Opera Plus: Bedřich Smetana 
29. Beveridge, David R.: Antonín Dvořák: His Life, His Music, His Legacy
30. Burghauser, Jarmil: Antonin Dvorak : Life And Work
31. Steinberg, Michael: Choral masterworks: a listener's guide. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 
              193 (2008)
32. Osborne, Charles: The Dictionary of the Opera. Simon & Schuster. p. 87 (1983)
33. Duchen, Jessica: Observations / Suk's Angel of Death is not for the faint-hearted. The Independent 2010
34. Bohuslav Martinů 1890-1959 : Life and Work. Divadelni Ustav, Praha, 1990, p.7-8
35. Suzette Mary Battan: Alois Hába / New Harmonies, Eastman School of Music, Rochester, 1980
36. Hirsch, Vladimír: Music of Czechia; 2014
37. Kadlec M.: The emergence of the polka in Kostelec

A brief history of painting art in Czechia

The development of painting art conjoined with Czechia started in the Romanesque period. The oldest preserved and simultaneously most artistically important work of that time is the murals in St. Catherine’s rotunda in Znojmo from 1134, exceptional in Romanesque art throughout Europe by focusing on the ideology of the state. 

The decorative painting of manuscripts was very popular in both the Romanesque and the Gothic periods. The most exquisite work, which had not had an analogue in Central Europe at the time, was the Vyšehrad Codex - the Coronation Gospels of King Vratislaus - from the beginning of the 12th century.

In the Gothic Era, panel paintings were flourishing. The most important are works of Master of Vyšší Brod altar and Master of Třeboň altar, the founders of the style, which dominated European painting around 1400, unique also for inclusion of Byzantine elements, which are typical for the Czech art of that period, and Master Theodoricus, the court painter of Charles IV, who filled the ruler's chapel of Holy Cross in Karlštejn castle by 130 paintings. The late Gothic art with a Renaissance touch is represented by the work of the Master of Litoměřice Altarpiece.               

Renaissance art came to Czechia with a delay because of the consequences of the Hussite wars in the country and influenced much more architecture than other art.

The most important Czech masters of Baroque painting were Petr Brandl, the author of many large altarpieces, where all the characters are very vivid, often very emotional, and always convincingly done; Jan Kupecký, who managed to perfectly capture the appearance of a person and his character traits in his portraits; and Karel Škréta, who excelled as a portrait painter and illustrator. 

An exceptional Czech artist of Baroque art was Václav Hollar, living later in London, the etcher of worldwide recognition. His views of European cities, engravings of ships, allegories and rich collection of graphic arts, depicting fauna and flora are unparalleled in the European art at that time.

The most important figure of classicist painting was Antonín Mánes. His work underwent a colorful evolution from composed classicist landscapes, romantically ragged scenery up with very realistic landscapes. 

Typical representants of the period of pure Romanticism are the mysterious master of the work with the light Adolf Kosárek and the color perfectionist Josef Navrátil. 

The late phase of Romanticism is represented by Josef Mánes, who is considered the founding personality of the Czech visual arts of that time, and master of the landscape painting. He is the author of allegorical boards of famous Astronomical Clock in Prague from 1866. 

                       

The second half of the 19th century, dominated by artists of romantic realism, with predominantly nationally oriented topics such as František Ženíšek, Vaclav Brožík, Luděk Marold, Vojtěch Hynais (designer of the curtain of the Prague National Theater), Karel Purkyně or Julius Mařák.  

                      ​       

            

The realistic period in fine arts comes with Antonín Chittussi. His own concept of landscapes seen in vivid terrain, in the disorderly segment of reality, and in the natural diffuse light. In particular, his smaller paintings with quick, easy brushstrokes belong to the jewels of Czech painting. The beginnings of the modern conception of landscape painting was substantially influenced by Antonín Slavíček. His works with the touch of impressionism perfectly expressed visual atmospheric phenomena, but also the inner substance of the landscapes, situations and moods.

Some kind of dark realism represents the melancholic and dark atmosphere of the works of the painter of mysterious Prague night corners and socially oriented themes Jakub Schikaneder. Virtuoso painter, portraitist, illustrator and creator of stamps and banknotes, the author of several monumental works and the founder of Czech Graphic School, Max Švabinský, with realistic groundings of his extensive work has to be mentioned.

Symbolism manifested itself in Czechia in mysterious paintings of Jan Preisler, combining influences of both symbolism and impressionism. A kind of second wave of symbolism, is associated in Czechia with the Sursum society of modern Czech art, associated with mysticism, theosophy and occultism. Noteworthy are Jan Zrzavý, who later developed his art into mystically spiritual forms using unmistakeable meaning of expression and Josef Váchal, another mystical traveller into the ambivalent world with expressively - in the philosophical sense - joining visions.

Alfons Mucha, world famous and one of the best known Czech artist is the main representative of Art Nouveau decorative painting, but his work contains also sculptures, various kinds of applied arts (jewelry and more) and photography. Awareness of this painter quickly spread beyond the borders of Czechia. In the 1890s he lived and worked in Paris. His posters became quickly well-known and his style influenced artists worldwide. 

  Created between 1910 and 1928, Alfons Mucha’s masterpiece is the cycle of 20 monumental canvases named The Slavic Epic (Slovanská epopej), depicting the history of the Slavic people and civilization and portray the main historical events of his own nation, the Czechs.

One of the most important Czech painters ever is František Kupka. He is considered a pioneer of abstract art, influencing subtantially all modern painting movements. His geometric abstraction concept is called “orphism”. He expresses a musical rhythm through the motion of a colored line or the dynamic gradation of colored areas. František Kupka started as realistic painter and his abstract art arose gradually from that base. The most inspirational are “Amorpha: Fugue in Two Colours” in several versions and “Warm Chromatics”, works which were of fundamental importance for the birth of abstract art, “Amorpha” is considered the milestone of it. The painter completely abandoned the traditional world of figures and objects (in the spirit of "the role of artist is not to depict what we already see, but its invisible substance") and set out into the unexplored unknown, where the leading role is played only by colours, their strength and shapes, movement, mutual relations, harmony and composition. 

Expressionism and cuboexpressionism is associated in Czechia with Bohumil Kubišta, passionate exponent of modern art, building on his deep knowledge of optics and the physiology of vision, which he then applied and Antonín Procházka's distinctive work based on a feeling for beautiful painting material using old techniques of encaustic, above all in his period of analytical and synthetic cubism. 

Czech Cubism is represented by Emil Filla, who's work contains a strong reflection on both military conflicts and Josef Čapek, consisting of deep social feeling and humanism. In addition to the world-famous personalities abstract painting in this period devoted several painters, for example, Vojtěch Preissig and František Foltýn.

Modern-feeling landscape painters of the interwar period included Rudolf Kremlička, Václav Špála, Vincenc Beneš, and by Cubism slightly influenced Otakar Kubín in his harmonious landscapes, also known for his still lifes and flowers in a delicate color scale. 

Czech surrealism is conjoined with painter, poet, editor, photographer, and graphic artist Jindřich Štyrský and probably the most famous Czech female painter Toyen (originally Marie Čermínová), who was a key figure in the surrealist avant-garde European art format with a great imagination of ghostly landscapes, whose aggressiveness and at the same time boundless despair were further intensified in her war works. Cooperating Toyen and Štyrský created a new artistic movement – ​​artificialism. In the manifesto of this movement, published in the magazine Red, they proceeded from the theory of poetism, declaring artificialism to be the identification of the painter and the poet. 

 

Another original and important personality of surrealism with international acclaim is Josef Šíma. His pictures introduce us to a mysterious stillness where rocks transform into living beings, floating weightlessly, while inanimate things generally take on human form. Among others things, he was a member of the famous French artistic group "Le Grand Jeu". Another representant of the style, František Muzika initially created a new pictorial reality in the form of so-called lyrical cubism, later involved strong surrealist elements in his work.

A global vision of destruction was encoded into the program of surrealistic group Ra. Its work was the most imaginative line of the Czech pre-war art, conjoined with names Bohdan Lacina and Josef Istler. 

World War II affected the nature of Czech art and caused a tendency toward experimentation in the new humanist subjects. Artists had to encrypt symbols because they were addressing a state of existential distress. After the Communist coup in 1948 the role and position of art became similar. The effort of various artistic groups to depict the role of man in modern civilization, which changes into a mere machine and steals his uniqueness, mainly influenced by civilism, cubism, futurism, constructivism, and a bit by surrealism. There is typical an obvious and characteristic enchantment by technology, evident in frequent focus on cities, factories, industry, and machines with human characters of common town people, represented by František Hudeček, Jan Kotik, Kamil Lhoták or František Gross. 

In the post-war art, however during 1950's hidden because of strong pressure of communist regime on artists to produce so called socialistic realism, they appeared several artists in Czechia, whose work was unique, but they became more known only in sixties, when political situation in the country allowed some kind of artistic freedom. Key figures of that period are  Vladimír Boudník, a representative of the "explosionism" movement with active structural graphic art, painter of philosophical visions Jan Koblasa, and  

 Mikuláš Medek, the most important Czech painter of post-war art in my opinion, starting with surrealistic influence, but gradually creating original symbolism of abstract sign systems with special shapes and colour language as metaphors for human existence in its tragic, picturesque and painful reality, but intensely thirsting for meaningful dimensions. His works are passionate and calm together, being the experienced confrontational dialogue between inner and transdimensional space.

Medek's intense mystical expression, internal consistency, authenticity of the message, powerful spiritual energy radiating from his paintings, represent one of the most important and the most original personalities of not only Czech, but also of 20th century painters worldwide. His artistic independence and spiritual dimensions were finely expressed, even at a time of implacable hostility towards modern art and free thinking (more about this painter in my article at "Mikuláš Medek: Metaphysical transformation of Pain").

Other important painters oriented in spirituality and mysticism in the huge critic relation to the state of human decline of second half of the 20th century are Bohuslav Reynek and Josef Jíra.

To the most interesting works of contemporary artists belong works of Vladimír Kokolia, some kind of caricature of contemporary human, but it is not only mockery, but a genuine existential distress, featured by masterful shortcut into a categorical imperative. 

Vladimír Hirsch 2007

(the extract of the article "Art Of Czechia)

Vladimír Hirsch

An Attempt at Analysis of Resistance to the Czech State's One-Word Name

One day, almost twenty years after the establishment of the modern Czech state, one of the most active fighters for the one-word name of this country said: „I wonder why such a united front opposes the name Česko and its English version. Just only the English version. We should call a symposium on this subject“. I shared both his astonishment and his exhaustion. Right, the meaning of his question was the rhetorical „Quo usque tandem…..“. Still, I decided to try a possibly thorough analysis of this phenomenon, which is surviving persistently in all layers of Czech society.

I. Reasons

In the beginning, let us examine some facts that fundamentally determine this phenomenon, even if they do not touch it directly and thus escape the standard detection methods. As we know, the attitude of the average Czech to his homeland is more indifferent than other Europeans´ relationship to their own countries. The mentioned characteristic makes the citizen less resistant to external and internal pressures and, consequently, unable to understand (let alone protect) his vital interests. If these statements are correct, we should ask about the reasons for this situation. They are the following:

 1  The historical loss of national self-confidence, a late offspring of the "Munich" complex. Back in September 1938, the lack of courage showed by the state's political representation paralyzed a large part of the nation. As a result of this psychological trauma, the people patiently surrendered to fate, and their morality disintegrated without recovery. This subject deserves a much more detailed analysis, which falls outside the scope of this article. There may be different views on how we should or should not behave at a historically significant moment. Still, one thing is sure: The decision to act so that the majority of the people survive physically, resulted in the downfall of national pride and damaging the people's characters, despite the heroic deeds done by those who did not accept the situation.

 2  The Czechs' high degree of identification with the Czechoslovak State. Few people are aware that the Czech National Revival was essentially all-Slavic. This movement was the intellectual center of the emancipation of Slavic peoples in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Therefore, the Czechs spontaneously adopted the feeling that they are "Czecho-Slavic" or "Czecho-Slovak". So, the Czech legions in WW1 called themselves "Czechoslovak," although we could only exceptionally find any Slovak soldiers among them. A similar situation was in the fight with Hungary over Slovakia's southern border in 1919. During the existence of Czechoslovakia, the Czechs usually did not hesitate to call themselves Czechoslovaks, but we could hardly find a similar approach beyond our present-day eastern border. The state was much more Czech than Slovak, and so its break-up affected Czechs much more deeply. We feel the results of this disillusionment up to the present day.​

 3  A "flagellant syndrome", which manifested itself in the prominent politicians' activities after the "velvet revolution“. So, for example, the Czech-German declaration in the 1990s, "solving" seemingly after years the problem between Czechs and Germans after WWII: while the German side included the expressions "we admit that..." and "we are aware of..." (six years' terror and genocide in Czechia), the Czech part says humbly and faithfully "we regret" (meaning the crimes committed during the expulsion of the Sudeten Germans after the war). Good from the Czech side, but, the term is not merely a sign of goodwill for Germans: it is a sign of weakness.

 4  Praising and admiring the incompetent multiculturalism as against the precious domestic cultural values which disappeared from people's consciousness. Getting to know one's roots is a necessary step to universal values and cannot be labeled as nationalistic. The universally proclaimed cosmopolitanism and post-positivism have never worked as a real striving for the world's civil society but as an escape from responsibility for one's environment. Only if we respect our own identity, we become a creative and beneficial part of the world. If not, we join the grey average and fall into oblivion. Still, from the viewpoint of the "citizens of the world", the feeling of being a Czech is a sort of naive, faded junk that turned into a social faux-pas.

 5  A complete departure of foreign policy from the traditional friendly relations and bonds which had inspired the international respect for our country. As we have already mentioned, it was in the 19th century that the Czechs constituted the intellectual center of the Slavic nations´ striving for emancipation. During the twenty years´ existence of the modern state, we managed to bury forever the remnants of these traditions (the official recognition of Kosovo, among others). We presented ourselves as opportunists who refuse to learn not only from negative but - beyond common sense - even from positive experiences of our past. Metaphorically, the foreign policy of the modern Czech state is the policy of a paper-boat captain on Victoria's waterfall. To put it bluntly, there is no foreign policy, there is merely servility to the powers; the only difference from the previous (communist) practice lies in the direction of its vector to one or the other cardinal points.

 6  The tragic level of education and information sources in general. The schools and the media often ignore or discredit historical and cultural milestones, personalities, and events on which a citizen could authentically build his national pride. On the contrary, education in this country resembles something like instruction in the inferiority complex. The media, nowadays a universal source of knowledge, play a significant role in this process. They find support in the current quasi-critical historiography, which emphasizes historical antagonisms and does not help the citizen to come to terms with the country's history.

As a result, national pride is mostly present when the "Czech Republic" wins a sports championship, and it lasts as long as the proud citizen gets sober and returns to everyday reality. This sort of patriotism manifests itself by the fans' jumping and shouting, "Češi, do toho!" - "Czechs, ahead!" One would expect the name of the country instead, but the Czech Republic is too long to chant, the acronym CR a bit weird, and Česko? No, the Czechs do not like it. Why? The answer is obvious: Because they subconsciously feel as if something were missing. Moreover, people do not know the real reason for their frustration and intuitive disagreement with the name. Therefore they invent arguments against its (nonexistent) linguistic and aesthetic weakness.

II. The problem "Česko"

We are finally getting to the core of the matter: Why is the name "Cesko" and the English equivalent Czechia to so many people so difficult to adopt? What is wrong with them? Is there anything missing?

 1  The citizen misses some visible and audible element of dignity and respectability in the name. Therefore he is so keen on using the word "republic" as if it were a magic wand that can provide the country with noble and distinguished character. "Česko" seems too short, and hardly worthy of notice. Where does the feeling come from? It is easy to guess: "Slovensko" is missing. The division and shortening of the name make one think of the loss of the territory, which the Czechs have never put up with. Therefore the young people, free from the weight of the past, would have no problem with "Česko" unless their teachers insisted on "Česká republika."

 2  Aesthetic euphony is another necessary quality in which the name Česko is lacking, says the general public. Some poets and writers (more or less competent) specify the complaint: “Česko sounds hard and hissing, it has not the poetic charm which is so typical of our language and country!” Sadly, they do not bring any proposal, what the name should look like. Instead, they prefer the Republic – a word whose “poetic character” might fascinate, at best, an author of ministerial circulars. In any case, a country's name is one of the terms that require accuracy of meaning, not a superficial likableness. The opponents also ignore the fact that other countries´ names originated by a similar word-formative process; maybe they think “the others” do not have to sound beautiful.

 3  Not universal but frequent is the Moravian complaint about neglecting the eastern part of the country in the state's name. The criticism does not include any proposal but only the erroneous idea that Česko is identical to Čechy. (In English, the names Czechia and Bohemia are not alike, so the confusion does not occur.) Surprisingly, the title Česká republika is acceptable. This longer name seems to substitute the traditional non-official expression “české země” (the Czech lands). We asked the Moravian movement representatives directly, why they reject Česko and accept Česká republika, but we only received an evasive answer. If I were a “moravist,” I would not be satisfied; from their point of view, the only solution would be “Čechy a Morava” (“Bohemia and Moravia”), as it was under the Protectorate.The former state´s name Československo (Česko-Slovensko in 1918) did not include Moravia, either. Why they do not mind this „omission“is a mystery.

 4  Finally, let us mention a marginal fake argument about the “wrong” spelling of Česko. It should be written as “Češsko” demanded the opponents, claiming wrongly, that the name of the country is derived from the names of its inhabitants (Čech, Češka). It was easy for linguists to disprove the claim because the names of the country are derived in Czech language from the adjective form (český - Česko, slovenský - Slovensko, polský - Polsko etc.). The form "češský" has never existed.

     Do the principal reasons for rejecting „Česko“ come from a curious remnant of national pride? Certainly not. In the first case, it is resentiment; in second one, the citizen wishes to present his homeland as a „paradise on earth,“ as the national anthem has it. A genuine patriot would adopt a name that reflects the country´s historical and cultural development. Political attributes limit the name's validity. „Česká republika“ is the title of the current state-political formation in the country and society. It does not cover the 1100 years´ statehood of the territory. Sadly, few people worry about it. So we witness tragicomic phenomena, such as a renowned historian´s wording „působení Cyrila a Metoděje v České republice“ („the activities of Cyril and Methodius in the Czech Republic“ - 863 AD!!!! and many other nonsenses arising from wrong universal use of the current political name. ​

We have listed some principal reasons for rejecting the name Česko. Now let us examine why the word “republic” meets with approval and favor. Here are some of the reasons:

 1  A “republican” tradition developed due to the establishment of the new Czechoslovak state in 1918. The term “republika” indicated people's pride in independence and freedom and became accepted usage. The following decades brought many historical and political changes; accordingly, the state´s name was changing. If we do not mention the degrading period of the Protectorate, there were the attributes Czechoslovak, Czechoslovak Socialist, Czech and Slovak Federal, and finally Czech; the only permanent element was the Republic. This fact may be a reason for mechanical clinging to this word. To some extent, it is understandable.

 2  A remnant from the communist era, when it was a routine to use only the state titles. In this way, the “Peace Camp” members differed from the others at first sight. Naturally, the primary purpose was to pretend that these states were governed on the “res publica” (“public affairs”) principle. Thus the media articles and news were teeming with People´s, People´s -Democratic, and Socialist Republics. Since the complete titles of states would need almost more space than the message proper, the writers and speakers used acronyms, such as (in Czech spelling) SSSR, ČSSR, ČSR, SSR, MLR, PLR, NDR, ČLR. A remnant of them is the frequent ČR, or in transcription CR (which makes the confusion even funnier because CR is the ISO code of Costa Rica).

 3  Many years' everyday excessive use of the word “republic”, even in small talk, makes people take it for a part of the country's proper name. The Republic means nothing else than a type of political management. Many people get astonished or excited when we alert them to the problem.We can call a person by name, or we can also mention his/her social or professional position. Sometimes we have to cite both, another time it may be highly inappropriate. We can tell the difference in everyday life. However, we fail to distinguish when the state's name is concerned. As if there were only „the accountant Mr. Karásek“, but no „Mr. Karásek“. We can imagine embarrassing and funny situations concerning Mr. Karásek's introduction; concerning the country's name, fun disappears, embarrassment and faux-pas remain. 

III. The problem "Czechia"

How easy and logical presentation proposal (of  course, rejected by institutions responsible for it) - using unversally applicable, timeless name of our country. The reasons for rejecting „Česko“ are self-evident. Still, the name makes progress and we can assume that it will eventually become accepted usage because there is no other choice. On the other hand, why is there a similarly strong resistance against the English equivalent „Czechia“? Why does a citizen oppose it so vehemently, even if his knowledge of English may be poor or zero?

Having created the „problem Česko,“ the Czechs transferred it automatically in the „problem Czechia.“ Why just in the English equivalent? A vast majority of the population have no idea about the natural existence and function of the country's one-word name in other languages (Tchéquie in French, Chequia in Spanish, Cechia in Italian, Chéquia in Portuguese, Tschechien in German, Tjeckien in Swedish, Tsjechië in Dutch, Чехия in Russian, Çekya in Turkish, צ'כיה in Hebrew, etc.). They hardly notice that these names are formed identically or similarly as in English. Even if they saw the fact, they would not care. But English is the universal means of communication in the present-day world; despite poor education in languages, an individual cannot but be aware of it, thus making it most relevant. For this reason, he immediately sees a problem in it, similar to „problem Česko“.

A rank-and-file citizen can influence the usage of his native language. On the other hand, the English version of the country's one-word name depends on the respective state institutions and organs. Sadly, the persons working there suffer from identical prejudice and errors or even create and spread them. They often use and misuse their power to fight against the one-word name. So, for the most part, it is the Czech political representatives' fault that the name Czechia occurs marginally, and its future is indefinite. Unfortunately, anglophone countries declared in 1993 that the choice of the English name is a matter of our government. It is then the government's fault that Czechia disappeared from the vocabulary of many foreign media and institutions in anglophone territories. In case the Czech side uses the name, the respective institutions repeatedly declared their positive attitude to Czechia. It never happened. On the contrary, "Czechia "was often blocked by Czech ambassadors. So the problem spread to countries that had adopted respective equivalents of "Czechia", which started to prefer the formal political title.

It was necessary to give some reasons for the negative approach. For this purpose, several myths were invented. They worked sufficiently; the public's dislike of "Czechia“ grows from personal feelings and emotions, and so every reason is welcome, however weak it may be. Since there are no facts to form a basis of the refusal, some distorted information must replace them. The most frequent fake arguments are as follows:

a) a dubious origin of the word

b) its overall weakness

c) maybe even an insulting character

d un-English character

e) historical inaccuracy

Medial misinterpretation plays a vital role in the origin of such myths. In the beginning, a respected authority utters a careless, irresponsible, purely subjective comment. The reporters take the words up and adapt them to attract public interest. Next comes an average reader/viewer, who usually has insufficient language knowledge but feels free to profess his opinion. 

By far the most cases result from a lack of education and responsibility. An uneducated person is not dangerous because he or she can eventually change his wrong attitude. On the contrary, the genuine enemy of the country´s name Czechia is a half-educated individual. A typical representative of this group is a politician who assumes that his position gives him the right to comment on everything. His self-confidence results from his obsessive urge to feel educated. Therefore he fights against all arguments, however convincing they may be. If he did not, he would admit that there is something he does not know. Since the half-educated (and also unscrupulous) individuals make up a considerable part of this state´s parliament and government, they will respect, parrot, and protect all sorts of stupid opinions and viewpoints. Why? Because, if they did not, they might endanger their own re-election: they depend on voters of a similar character. In this regard, these politicians are extremely sensitive; on the other hand, they neglect the voters´opinion, in their own interests (power and money) are concerned. The false arguments that they use for this purpose penetrate automatically into the public. The resulting vicious circle offers no exit and can only be cut from outside. (That is the aim of our efforts.) We can list the said false arguments in the following order according to their frequency:

 1  The name is of „eastern“ origin and thus denominates something underdeveloped or backward. (Alexander Vondra: “We [who is „we“? - author´s note] don´t want it, it sounds like Russia.“) , Mr. Vondra does not know that „Czechia“ and all similar variants come from Latin, and he is not concerned with its origin. He would hardly say what he said if he knew that the Latin form Czechia or Cechia reaches back to the ear 17th century. Moreover, an average inhabitant, missing reliable mental support, cherishes a mental rescue-crutch: a feeling of superiority over everything that exists to the east of him. It is the other side of his inferiority complex. As far as the names are concerned, he cites, for example, Bulgaria, Latvia, Armenia, but forgets Bohemia, Moravia, Austria, Australia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Columbia, and others. It is one of the unfortunate consequences of the absence of Latin in present-day secondary education.​

Concerning this category, we can mention the (artificially produced) "Chechnya affair". Rumour had it that the names Czechia and Chechnya were similar enough to be confused, and if so, it could damage our tourism. Who would visit a country where a permanent war is going on? In reality, Chechnya not only sounds quite different but also does not constitute an independent state. In the end, the real story emerged: In comments on the Boston marathon bomb attack in 2013, Chechnya was confused with the Czech Republic, not with Czechia. The myth was dead, but it survived in the media and in the heads of its inventors, who never interpreted the Boston story truthfully. In any case, an individual's lousy knowledge of geography is no argument against a government's option for the country's name. There is always someone who confuses cocaine with caffeine, astronomy with agronomy, or, among countries' names, Austria with Australia, Slovakia with Slovenia, but hardly anybody would require a change. By the way, if we were not confused with the incriminated far-away part of Russia but, say, the highly developed Sweden, hardly anybody would complain. This all results from the notion that our country is not sufficiently prominent or respectable on a global scale.

 2  The name lacks respectability (see above the passage "why Republic ") and may even be insulting. Those who share this opinion are not able to explain it. It comes from what we cite under 1) and also from would-be expert claims of some linguists or historians: they say that it is either derived - or directly translated – from the German "Tschechei. " In their opinion, this word is pejorative because Hitler used it, although it had existed long before. The pre-war editions of the German national Brockhaus encyclopedia define it as the standard "name of the western part of Czechoslovakia. "It survives in the vocabulary of border-area inhabitants, who naturally do not feel it as pejorative. After the negotiations with Czech representatives in 1993, the Germans diplomatically opted for "Tschechien“. The respective theorists probably based their proposal on materials from the early stage of the Protectorate when the name "Böhmen und Mähren "was not yet introduced. "Czechia", on the other hand, is 75 years older than Tschechien. In the 1920s-30s, the American media used it as a natural denomination of the Czech state in its historical context.

  3   The name is un-English or sounds „weird“ in English. This opinion also occurs, especially with those opponents who prefer „Czechland“ or „Czechlands. “ Yes, this alternative would sound more natural in English. However, contrary to „Czechia,“ it is an artificial neologism without any historical background. iI cannot „come from nowhere“, unless the English-speaking experts opted for it If they did, we would not object to their request. Some North-American names of non-English (Indian) origin, such as Saskatchewan, Idaho, Kansas, Wyoming, Massachusetts, do not sound English, but everybody uses them. And how about Lithuania, Chile, Zimbabwe? Do they sound natural? They are non-English names of non-English countries, so they do not have to sound natural in English. One more conjecture has appeared in the press: the name Czechia is linguistically wrong because it suggests the pronunciation [che-chi-ya] (chi like „chip“). This false argument is irrelevant. In many words, the written ch sounds k: architect, technic, archive, ache, chimera. Spelling is one thing; the correct pronunciation is another one: it is necessary to learn it. 

 4  The name does not correspond with history. Czechia never existed „de facto.“ This claim is the least frequent but the most dangerous. It originates among half-educated intellectuals who feel sufficiently qualified to force their opinions upon the public. They find a breeding ground on anonymous internet databases, such as Wikipedia, where they can modify the content like censors. Almost all of them rank among heart-and-soul bureaucrats. They cannot see a state in its historical and cultural continuity or distinguish between the letter of the law and its spirit. They argue that it is impossible to apply the name Czechia retrospectively to the „Kingdom of Bohemia“ or the „Crown Lands of Bohemia.“ They fail to notice that other states do so routinely; for example, Germany has existed as an integrated state only since 1871. Due to this absurd approach, the mentioned source of information inspires authors to produce absurd deductions as already was demostrated above (Prince Bořivoj and Charles IV. - extracts from a book on Czech history, written in English and based on information from Wikipedia.) Some of Wikipedia´s writers and administrators became aware of this absurdity. After long and thorough deliberation, they replaced this nonsense by another, even worse one: „...now the Czech Republic, previously the Crown Lands of Bohemia consisting primarily of the Kingdom of Bohemia and the Margraviate of Moravia.“ This muddle occurs in many articles dealing with Czech history.

The protagonists of this creed refuse to accept the following apparent facts:

 1  A simplified term is necessary for a nonprofessional recipient to understand the information; moreover, it is valid generally. Many books had the title „History of Czechoslovakia“ or „Czechoslovak History, “ although none of them covered only the period of the state´s existence, starting in 1918. On the other hand, the first „post-November“ team-work historical synthesis (also published in English) bears the title „A History of the Czech Lands, “ although this collocation has never been the Czech state´s official or political name. The authors did not apply the relevant, correct, and logical title „Dějiny Česka“/“A History of Czechia. “ However, it is a standard way the countries present themselves, even if some periods of their history do not apply the particular name. This sensible method helps the recipient to keep his bearings. We can see the difference when we compare the two headings: „A History of Czechia“ vs. „A History of the Czech Republic. “

 2  Their peculiar interpretation of terms is inconvenient: it baffles the standard recipient and inspires such informational gems as "Prince Bořivoj and Charles IV. "

 3  It is beneficial to offer a clear and transparent definition of our state and its continuity.

All kinds of information trying to set the myths to the right have insufficient coverage. The chief editors of the most popular media usually reject them; thus, the articles only appear in professional periodicals, on the websites of the Civic initiative Česko/Czechia and on the web of English Wikipedia (where they are systematically deleted by Czech administrators).

​

​

IV. Common Problem

The common problem concerning both Česko and its English equivalent Czechia is the would-be aesthetic assessment, "I do not like the name," declared without any justification. This irrational personal attitude is, by far, the most frequent. It would not be noteworthy if it only occurred with "rank-and-file "citizens. Surprisingly, we find an even higher percentage of this unprofessional approach in persons and institutions responsible for public affairs. The country's geographic name is not a mere object of aesthetic pleasure. First of all, it must serve the state's basic needs. Who else should be aware of this essential request, if not the state's representatives? 

The difference in meaning and function between the Czech state's geographic vs. political name is the core of the matter within its professional sphere. Oddly enough, some persons are unable or unwilling to distinguish, be it on account of ignorance or arrogance. We could hardly imagine a member of Parliament of the French Republic (République française) who would not know that his country, apart from the political title, also can be called France. In our country, however, we often witness the very opposite.

V. Substitutes

In daily life, the one-word (short, geographic) name is a natural and logical necessity. While the responsible persons or institutions ignore this need, the do-it-yourself public can invent a name. Since the upper circles reject the correct name, the people create a wrong makeshift: a simple (or rather foolish) abbreviation of the political title by omitting the "republic. "The resulting "Czech "works as an adjective, but not as a proper name of the country "Česko." In English, adjectives are never identical with the countries' names. It would be inconvenient, apart from other reasons. It is easy to succumb to the illusion if well-known institutions offer it. We adduce an example from sports: The Czech Olympic Committee and the Czech Ice-Hockey Union placed the wrong form on the sportsmen's outfit; as a result, many other unions believed that it was the adequate equivalent to the word Česko. The Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports (who distribute hundreds of millions from the state budget to particular sports and mainly to state representation) shared this trend. After long-lasting protests, the unions replaced "Czech "by another, but no less inappropriate inscription "Czech Team. " In vain were the logical objections that the "Czech Team "applies to the national representatives and equally, say, to Sparta Prague or the local Sports Club in Kotěhůlky.

The brusque „Czech“ survives in the names of many business companies and organizations (for example, Synlab Czech, Toyota Motor Czech, Huyndai Motor Czech, Gillette Czech, and others). It shows lack of knowledge and interest on the part of the corporations but also indifference and disregard on the part of Czech authorities.The gravest harm comes from the the world-renowned Pilsen Prazdroj brewery who have been labelling their export production „Pilsen – Czech“ for more than ten years now; they insist they do not mean the country but an attribute of the product – it is „Czech beer“. True or not, the wording of the message does not prove it. „Czech“ also decorates sports hats and T-shirts, and a variety of tourist souvenirs. This would-be name of the country does not result from anglophone speakers´ usage, as some of its advocates try to make us believe; it is typical „Czenglish“, a genuine product „Made in Czech“ (language). Understandably, its creators´ knowledge of English is low or limited to a narrow field of practical usage. On the other hand, it is alarming that some professionals in the field of English language sometimes accept it.

Thus it is no wonder that an average citizen takes this erroneous form for the correct translation of "Česko" into English. Contrary to the fuss over "missing euphony and dignity" in the word Česko, the public does not apply aesthetic criteria. People accept the one-syllable, brusque "check "-sound without reservation. Moreover, they use it as a source of would-be witty puns, such as "Czech it out "or the official ( ! ) Czechpoint. According to the law, the state's essential symbols must not be altered or abused; the name is undoubtedly one of them. However, this principle is often infringed even on international occasions, including the Olympic games. Examples: Individual and wilful versions of the name in the media; a sports team wearing T-shirts in the form of flags with reversed color order; heraldic errors in the state's coat of arms; wrong sizes of color parts in the state flag; the fans' ugly attributes made of incredible variants of the state's name, its flag, or coat of arms. All these occur every day.

The Czech politicians have tried hard to eradicate the country's correct name; they have done nothing to stop spreading garbles. They only wake up from their lethargy when somebody uses the proper form. At that moment, they open a fierce discussion. With a bit of exaggeration, we could interpret their approach: "Treat the country's name as you like, damage it as you wish, every atrocity (Czech Republike, Czech Rep, Team Czech) is permitted; only don't admit the correct title."

VI. Consequences

Linguistic, historical, and geographical arguments and political and social relations show that the one-word name is necessary and cannot be substituted by the political title. Every avoidance of this necessity leads to verbal and terminological chaos; it reduces the country´s ability to identify itself. This situation harms the state from outside and inside. In domestic politics, it contributes to disunity and dispute. On the international scene, it evokes intuitive doubts about such a unit; the more so because we are the only exception from Europe´s standard and one of four exceptions on a global scale. Symptomatically, our partners are the Dominican Republic, the Central African Republic, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Česko/Czechia is not a country of considerable prominence, concerning the size, the number of inhabitants, and the actual influence (let alone the long-time political indifference and minimal international activities of its representatives). The country´s image becomes the hazier, the less it can conventionally define itself. This handicap harms all spheres, particularly economics. Stability, reliability, and visibility are necessary for a trademark. The good old brand „Made in Czechoslovakia“ has logically one possible heir: „Made in Czechia“.

VII.Conclusion 

We are arriving at the core of the question that we asked at the beginning of this paper: Why does a part of the Czech population (with the political elite at the head) refuse so stubbornly and permanently to solve the issue?

After years of work in our Civic Initiative, after hundreds of articles, press conferences, requests, appeals (mostly without response), we can give a plain answer: The public does not feel a necessity to appear as a well-established, locally and historically anchored state. Thus, the state´s management takes an opportunistic, inconstant line without a vision and idea, as if the leaders had lost or reversed the essential scale of values. 

Some time ago, the President used the name Czechia in a conversation with a foreign politician. The media faced it as a novelty and opened discussions on the (non-existing) choice „either the political title or the one-word name. “ With only minor exceptions, a vast majority of the renowned authorities showed that they were far from understanding the proper crux of the issue. (Let alone the journalists, the would-be „experts“ in various professions, a crowd of bloggers and internet chatters.) The most contributions to this dump of opinions consisted of vague emotional responses whose authors could not understand WHAT was said and WHO brought up the old problems.

In an imaginary vote (based on the wrong task „either-or“and resulting in the relation 2-3: 1), we proudly declared that common sense gets a bad deal and that we do not want to have a name. The future will show the consequences. The vital issue is more profound and broader than our ignorance of the problem in its linguistic, historical geographic and political context; it is the fact that we do not feel the necessity of possessing a permanent value. Because, if we did, we could easily understand the partial attributes of the matter. 

Vladimír Hirsch (2013)

Translation: Eva Horová